The Great Udder Mystery: How Some Dumb Caveman Accidentally Invented Milkshakes
Let me tell you a story about the greatest act of accidental genius in human history—the time some prehistoric bozo decided that squeezing a giant, grumpy, horned animal’s teats was a great idea.
I know what you’re thinking: “Barnaby, that’s not funny. It’s basic agriculture.” But hear me out. I’ve done the research (I Googled it for 20 minutes while eating a cheese puff), and I can now reveal the real story of how humanity stumbled into the dairy industry. Spoiler: It was probably an accident involving a hungover hunter, a confused cow, and a terrible life decision.
The Day It All Went Down (Approx. 10,500 Years Ago)
Picture this: It’s the Neolithic era. You’re a hunter-gatherer named Grok. You’ve had a rough night of… well, whatever Neolithic people did for fun (probably arguing about who left the firewood out). You wake up with a headache that could fell a mammoth and the crushing realization that the last of your mammoth jerky was eaten by a raccoon.
Grok stumbles toward the aurochs herd (which is just “wild cow” in caveman talk). He’s not hunting today—too hungover. But then he sees it: a lactating auroch with a udder so full it’s practically begging for attention. In his alcohol-clouded brain, two thoughts compete:
- “I wonder if I can milk this?”
- “I wonder if I can milk this and then run away before it kills me?”
Grok chooses option 2. And thus, the dairy industry was born—not through brilliant agricultural insight, but because some dude was too lazy to hunt and too drunk to know better.
The Archaeological Evidence (Yes, I Made This Up)
According to the totally real “Grok’s Pottery Shards” (found in the Taurus Mountains, carbon-dated to 8,500 BCE), we have the first physical evidence of dairying. The shards contain “lipid residues” (i.e., ancient milk fat) and a crude drawing of a guy running away from a very angry cow.
The pottery also features what appears to be a prehistoric “helpful hint” etched into the side: “DON’T DO WHAT GROK DID. GROK BAD.”
How It Went Viral (Before Viral Was a Thing)
Word of Grok’s discovery spread faster than you can say “lactose intolerant.” Within decades, every tribe from the Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley was squeezing teats like it was going out of style.
The genetic evidence is clear: humans developed “lactase persistence” (the ability to digest milk as adults) because someone kept doing this stupid thing, and the ones who didn’t die from digestive distress had more babies. Evolution, folks—it’s not always pretty.
The Real Reason It Stuck Around
You might wonder: Why did this dangerous, potentially fatal practice (I mean, have you met a cow?) become the foundation of an entire industry?
Simple: It was the original protein shake.
In an era before refrigeration, when “dinner” was whatever you could stab with a stick, milk was the ultimate convenience food. It was:
- Ready-to-drink (mostly)
- High in calories (critical for survival)
- Did not require hunting (a bonus for hungover hunters)
Plus, it turns out that when you let milk sit around for a few days, it becomes cheese—nature’s first meal prep hack. Early humans didn’t invent fermentation; they just forgot to drink their milk and woke up to a happy accident.
Modern-Day Implications
Today, we have sophisticated dairy farms, pasteurization, and lactose-free milk for the genetically unfortunate. But let’s not forget our roots: we owe the entire dairy industry to one hungover guy who made a terrible decision.
The next time you sip your latte, remember Grok. Remember that moment of desperation that gave us cheese, butter, and that weird yogurt drink you pretend to like because it’s “healthy.”
Final Thoughts
So who decided to milk a cow? Some idiot who was too lazy to hunt and too drunk to know better.
Why did they do it? Because they were hungover and needed a quick snack.
And why did it work? Because evolution is weird and sometimes rewards terrible decisions.
Next time you see a cow, give it a respectful nod. It’s the only reason you’re not still eating mammoth jerky and wondering why you can’t digest dairy.
Disclaimer: This blog post is satire. The author is not a historian, archaeologist, or cow. The “Grok’s Pottery Shards” are 100% fictional. If you try to milk an auroch (they’re extinct, by the way), don’t blame me when you get gored. And for the love of all that is holy, stop asking your dog if it wants a glass of milk.
Comprehensive Answer
Tracing Ancestry: Genetic Legacies of Cattle in the Americas
Ancient DNA and Historical Records Reveal Complex Origins and Colonial Transformations
Abstract
Recent research utilizing ancient DNA and genetic markers has refined understanding of cattle origins and dispersal, moving beyond traditional narratives of simple Iberian introductions to the Americas post-1500. Analysis of archaeological specimens from Hispaniola, Mexico, and Jamaica reveals a complex history of transatlantic cattle populations characterized by diverse genetic lineages, including both European (haplogroup T3) and African (haplogroup T1) contributions. These findings suggest pre-Columbian interactions between North African and Iberian cattle, and potentially, direct African introductions accompanying the transatlantic slave trade. Modern Creole cattle exhibit this mixed ancestry, with the identification of a unique “African-derived American” sub-haplogroup (AA-T1c1a1) further supporting a more nuanced picture of founding populations. Genetic data demonstrate that cattle introductions weren’t singular events, but rather multiple waves from diverse locales. This complex pattern of dispersal is contextualized by Late Pleistocene climate shifts influencing both human migration and animal movement. Breed diversification within Bos taurus and Bos indicus is evidenced through mitochondrial and Y chromosome analyses, revealing geographic structuring and the impact of artificial selection following colonization. These findings demonstrate the interconnectedness of Afro-Eurasian populations and the enduring legacy of aurochs ancestry as reshaped by transatlantic exchanges and colonial land use practices.
Introduction
Cattle, Bos taurus and Bos indicus, represent a globally significant mammalian lineage originating from the wild aurochs (Bos primigenius). Understanding the evolutionary history of modern cattle requires tracing their ancestry through complex domestication events and subsequent breed diversification. This report details research into the origins of cattle, focusing on genetic analyses of both mitochondrial and Y chromosome markers within American heritage breeds to establish patterns of ancestral divergence and dispersal.
The primary objective of this research is to reconstruct the demographic history of cattle populations, particularly as it relates to the introduction of animals to the Americas following European contact. Initial hypotheses centered on a limited introduction from the Iberian Peninsula; however, recent ancient DNA (aDNA) evidence suggests a more complex scenario involving multiple introduction events and potential contributions from North African lineages. This report examines the genetic composition of colonial-era cattle remains and modern Creole breeds to refine our understanding of cattle origins and the processes of breed formation.
This report explores five key aspects of cattle biology and history: their origins and evolutionary trajectory, the diversification of breeds and associated genetic characteristics, observed behavioral patterns and social dynamics, nutritional adaptations and physiological responses to varied environments, and the environmental impacts of cattle, particularly regarding land use and biodiversity. Through analysis of genetic data, archaeological evidence, and inferences from historical accounts, this report outlines the complex interplay of factors that have shaped the current distribution and characteristics of cattle populations.
Origins and Evolutionary History of Cattle
Origins and Evolutionary History of Cattle
Understanding the origins of modern cattle necessitates tracing the lineage back to their wild ancestor, the aurochs (Bos primigenius) [1]. While the provided sources focus primarily on post-Columbian cattle and early dairying, the context establishes that comprehending aurochs origins is crucial to interpreting the genetic history of domesticated breeds [1]. Modern genetic analysis, utilizing both mitochondrial and Y chromosome markers in American heritage cattle, demonstrates a complex ancestry ultimately originating from aurochs populations and diverging into Bos taurus in Southwest Asia and Bos indicus in South Asia [1]. This initial divergence created distinct maternal lineages, defined by various T haplogroups within Bos taurus and I1/I2 within Bos indicus [1].
Prior to European contact, aurochs were absent from the Americas, and initial historical accounts suggested a limited introduction of approximately 500 animals from the Iberian Peninsula, likely via the Canary Islands, to the Caribbean [1]. However, recent ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis of archaeological specimens from Hispaniola, Mexico, and Jamaica reveals a more complex picture, demonstrating diverse origins and challenging the simple Iberian narrative [1]. Specifically, aDNA studies have identified both European (haplogroup T3) and African (haplogroup T1) mitochondrial lineages in early post-Columbian cattle remains, suggesting potential interactions between North African and Iberian cattle populations before transatlantic voyages [1]. The discussion of genetic diversity in contemporary Creole cattle, with contributions from both European and African lineages, indirectly supports the aurochs as the source of this variability [1].
Further investigation into the timing of these introductions, utilizing archaeological samples dating from the 16th-18th centuries, indicates not a single founding population, but potentially multiple waves of cattle arriving from diverse locales [1]. The identification of an “African-derived American” sub-haplogroup (AA-T1c1a1) in modern Creole breeds, corroborated by aDNA from Jamaica, hints at the possibility of direct African cattle introductions alongside the transatlantic slave trade, or at least, a substantial African genetic contribution present in Iberian cattle prior to their transport [1].
Considering the broader context of Late Pleistocene climate shifts further informs our understanding of cattle distribution patterns [2]. Research indicates significant climate events, including periods of increased aridity and the formation of pluvial corridors, influenced early human migration and, consequently, the movement of domesticated animals [2]. While the sources don’t directly address cattle dispersal linked to these climate events, the established link between human migration and animal domestication suggests environmental factors likely played a role in facilitating or restricting the spread of cattle populations alongside human settlements [2]. The interplay between orbital climate forcing, sea level changes, and resource availability would have shaped both human and animal dispersal routes. Ultimately, the genetic data demonstrate that the founding populations were likely more diverse than previously understood [1]. This highlights the interconnectedness of Afro-Eurasian populations and the role of transatlantic exchanges in shaping the genetic landscape of cattle in the Americas [1]. Understanding the genetic makeup of colonial-era cattle is, in essence, a reconstruction of the aurochs’ legacy as it was carried across the Atlantic and shaped by new environmental pressures and human selection [1].
Breed Diversification and Characteristics
Breed Diversification and Characteristics
Cattle exhibit distinct genetic lineages, broadly categorized as Bos taurus (taurine) and Bos indicus (indicine), originating from separate domestication events. Bos taurus arose from aurochs domesticated in Southwest Asia approximately 10,500 years ago [23], while Bos indicus descended from south Asian wild cattle domesticated around 8,000 years ago [23]. These lineages are characterized by unique mitochondrial genomes, with Bos taurus displaying ten major haplogroups including T, P, Q, R, and AA [24, 25], and Bos indicus represented by I1 and I2 [24]. Geographic distribution reflects these origins; T3 haplogroup dominance is found in European Bos taurus breeds, while T1 prevails in African breeds [1]. Notably, genetic diversity within these lineages extends beyond mitochondrial DNA, demonstrated through analysis of paternal lineages via Y chromosome markers. While Y3 is associated with Bos indicus, Y1 and Y2 show a north-south gradient in Europe [34].
Breed classification within Bos taurus historically relied on observable characteristics – morphology, production function (milk, meat, draft), and geographic origin – but modern approaches increasingly utilize genetic data to refine these classifications. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis reveals distinct haplogroups that correlate with geographic regions; haplogroup T3 is predominantly found in European breeds [1], while T1 is prevalent in African cattle [1]. This genetic structuring is further evidenced by the presence of African influence (T1 haplogroup) in Iberian cattle, suggesting historical interactions between North Africa and Europe [1]. Further refinement utilizes Y chromosome analysis to trace paternal lineages, revealing patterns beyond maternal inheritance. Studies have identified distinct Y haplotypes associated with specific geographic regions, like the indicine lineage (Y3) linked to South Asia [1].
Genetic diversity within and between breeds is demonstrably complex, influenced by domestication events and subsequent population movements. Analysis of modern American Creole cattle reveals a genetic makeup composed primarily of European ancestry alongside significant African contributions, particularly the T1a matriline [1]. Intriguingly, a unique “African-derived American” sub-haplogroup of T1 (AA-T1c1a1) has been identified in limited locations within the Americas, suggesting early African cattle may have been present on these continents [1]. Ancient DNA studies confirm this complexity; analysis of 16th-century Jamaican cattle revealed individuals aligning with both European (T3) and African/Southern European (T1) haplogroups [1]. The presence of indicine introgression (Y3) in modern American Creole cattle, at approximately 39.5% of Y haplogroups [11], suggests complex patterns of admixture following the Columbian Exchange. These findings indicate that the introduction of cattle to the Americas wasn’t a singular event from a homogenous population, but rather involved multiple waves of introduction from diverse locales, including potential direct introductions of African cattle [1].
The diversification of cattle breeds, particularly following their introduction to the Americas, demonstrates a clear role for artificial selection driven by colonial practices. While initial introductions likely involved a limited gene pool from the Southern Iberian Peninsula and the Canary Islands [1], the rapid establishment of cattle ranching and subsequent trade created conditions favoring specific traits. Historical accounts detail the economic importance of cattle for meat, leather, and transport [1], suggesting that early artificial selection focused on traits enhancing productivity in these areas. The development of “Creole” or heritage breeds in the Americas reflects this process, with genetic analysis revealing a complex mix of European and African ancestries [1]. This suggests not only adaptation to new environments but also intentional (or unintentional) breeding practices that favored certain lineages over others. The variable frequency of different Y chromosome haplotypes further underscores a history of selective breeding, potentially emphasizing traits suited to the varied landscapes and economic demands of different regions within the Americas [1]. The ability to extract and analyze both mitochondrial and Y chromosome data from archaeological specimens allows researchers to investigate the origins of early post-Columbian cattle with greater precision [1]. Ultimately, the genetic signature of cattle in the Americas demonstrates that artificial selection – driven by the needs of the colonial economy and potentially influenced by pre-existing genetic diversity – played a significant role in shaping the characteristics of modern breeds [1]. The identification of specific genetic signatures linked to regional origins and functional traits is crucial for conservation efforts, breed management, and understanding the impact of cattle domestication on global landscapes [1]. The genetic data supports a scenario where cattle arrived via the Canary Islands, but also suggests earlier exchanges between North Africa and Iberia, and even the possibility of direct African introductions [1]. Ongoing research attempts to clarify the chronology and origins of these complex patterns of cattle diversification and the roles of both maternal and paternal lineages in shaping the genetic landscape of American heritage breeds [1].
Cow Behavior and Social Dynamics
Cognitive Abilities: Learning, Problem-Solving, and Emotional Range
While the provided sources primarily focus on the archaeological and genetic history of cattle and early dairying practices, limited inferences regarding cognitive abilities can be drawn. The successful domestication and widespread dispersal of cattle, as evidenced by archaeological finds across the Caribbean, Mesoamerica, and Europe [1], inherently suggests a degree of adaptability and learning capacity within the species. The ability to thrive in new environments, particularly those drastically different from their original habitat, necessitates problem-solving skills related to foraging, resource identification, and navigating unfamiliar landscapes. The establishment of cattle ranching as a central component of colonial economies [1, 2] further implies a degree of trainability and responsiveness to human management, though the extent of complex cognitive engagement remains unaddressed within these texts.
Furthermore, the documentation of cattle movement and trade across regions like the Canary Islands, Caribbean, and Mexican Gulf Coast [1] suggests cattle were managed as a valuable resource, indicating an understanding of their behavior and potential for herding. The integration of cattle into various cultural and economic systems—including use as bride wealth or in trade networks [2]—implies a level of social understanding on the part of both humans and, potentially, the animals themselves. This suggests early humans would have observed and potentially influenced traits related to successful rearing, such as milk production and udder conformation, impacting maternal success [1]. Genetic studies also reveal the complex ancestry of modern cattle, including contributions from both European and African lineages [1], implying varied characteristics and potentially different rearing strategies were present in early populations.
Given the sources, a subsection specifically addressing maternal behavior and calf development is not directly supported by the text. However, these observations of early cattle management highlight the species’ potential for learning and behavioral modification. It is important to note that the research presented focuses on tracing the genetic origins and historical distribution of cattle [1], not on detailed ethological studies of their cognitive or emotional lives. Though not explicitly detailed, the successful introduction of cattle into diverse environments and their role in shaping early agricultural societies points to inherent behavioral plasticity and adaptability, forming the basis for further investigation into their cognitive capabilities.
Currently, the provided source list does not contain information pertaining to “Social Structure & Hierarchy Formation” within cattle or any related behavioral dynamics. Therefore, it is impossible to construct a subsection on this topic using only the provided sources, as requested by the prompt instructions.
I am missing the source list needed to complete this request for “Communication Methods: Vocalizations, Body Language, & Olfactory Signals”. Please provide the source list, and I will generate the requested subsection.
Cow Nutrition and Physiological Adaptations
Adaptations to Diverse Environments & Forage Types
The successful establishment of cattle in diverse American environments following the Columbian Exchange demonstrates a degree of adaptability facilitated by varied genetic origins. Analysis of ancient DNA reveals that early post-Columbian cattle in the Americas did not originate from a single source, but rather exhibited diverse ancestries, potentially including both European and African lineages [1]. This suggests an initial population capable of tolerating, or rapidly adapting to, a range of environmental conditions beyond those of their Iberian origin. The presence of African-derived mitochondrial haplogroup T1 in both modern Creole breeds and, importantly, in archaeological specimens from the 16th century [1], indicates the potential for early introgression of African cattle adapted to different forage types and climates—possibly those already acclimated to drier conditions—into the American gene pool.
Initially, cattle – both Bos taurus and Bos indicus – existed within ecosystems where their diet consisted of naturally available forage [1]. Archaeological evidence, coupled with understanding of early cattle domestication, suggests these animals thrived on grazing lands, adapting to regional vegetation [1]. The introduction of cattle to new environments, such as the Americas, fundamentally altered their feeding patterns, moving them from ecosystems defined by natural forage to landscapes increasingly shaped by colonial agricultural practices [1]. This shift highlights a key aspect of cattle adaptation: their capacity to survive and even flourish when provided with a range of forage types, albeit often influenced by human intervention.
Further evidence of adaptability is seen in the genetic makeup of modern Creole breeds, which demonstrate a complex mixture of European and African ancestries [1]. This genetic diversity likely conferred resilience to the variable environments encountered in the Americas, from Caribbean islands to the Mesoamerican mainland [1]. The dispersal patterns, following initial establishment in the Caribbean, and onward to regions like Mexico and Panama [1], indicate cattle could thrive across a range of ecosystems, utilizing diverse forage sources available in each region. The development of cattle ranching in the post-Columbian Americas marked a significant departure from natural diets [1]. As cattle became integral to the colonial economy—providing meat, leather, and fats—the emphasis shifted towards maximizing herd size and output [1]. This likely involved some degree of supplemental feeding and management of grazing lands to support larger populations than naturally sustainable.
While the provided sources focus primarily on the history of cattle and their dispersal rather than detailed dietary information, inferences about shifts from natural to modern feeding practices can be drawn. The remaining sources [2, 3] further concentrate on broader archaeological and environmental contexts—climate change, human migration patterns, and isotopic analysis of past diets—but do not offer any information pertaining to bovine nutrition or its effect on milk or meat production. However, the observation of African lineages within Creole cattle suggests that these animals carried genetic predispositions to survive on forage types commonly found in African regions, contributing to their overall adaptability in the Americas [1].
The interplay between genetic background and environmental pressures is complex, and further research is needed to fully understand the specific adaptive traits that enabled successful cattle establishment. However, the combined evidence paints a picture of a surprisingly adaptable animal, capable of thriving in novel environments and contributing to the transformation of American landscapes [1].
Cattle and Environmental Impact
Land Use: Grazing Management and Ecosystem Effects
Source [1] details the significant role cattle played in reshaping landscapes following European colonization of the Americas, specifically noting the development of cattle ranching as a key land use practice. This system, characterized by extensive, largely unmanaged grazing, dramatically altered pre-Columbian ecosystems. While the initial introduction of cattle was relatively small – approximately 500 animals to the Caribbean – their populations rapidly expanded, driving substantial changes in vegetation and resource availability. The study highlights how cattle became central to the emerging colonial economy, linked to meat, leather, and trade, demonstrating a direct connection between land use practices and economic drivers.
Further examination of genetic data from archaeological sites in the Caribbean and Mesoamerica [1] reveals insights into the timing and spread of these grazing-based land use systems. Analysis of ancient DNA suggests cattle were present as early as the 16th century, with genetic diversity indicating introductions from multiple sources, potentially including Africa. This early genetic diversity, coupled with the subsequent expansion of ranching, highlights the complex interplay between livestock management, landscape modification, and the development of new agricultural systems. The findings support a scenario of both initial diversification and later waves of introduction impacting the genetic composition of American heritage cattle breeds, and ultimately, land use patterns. While the provided sources primarily focus on the introduction and genetic history of cattle, the implications for ecosystem effects are clear.
Impacts on Biodiversity & Potential for Sustainable Practices
The introduction of cattle to new environments, particularly in the Americas following European colonization, dramatically altered landscapes and likely impacted existing biodiversity [1]. The establishment of cattle ranching, as a key component of the colonial economy, further reshaped land use patterns, contributing to habitat alteration and the displacement of indigenous species [4, 5, 6, 7]. Understanding the genetic diversity within heritage breeds offers opportunities for more sustainable practices. The presence of African-derived lineages in American cattle, evidenced by the T1 haplogroup [1], highlights the potential for utilizing breeds adapted to different environmental conditions. Conservation efforts focused on these unique genetic resources could support resilience within cattle populations and minimize the need for intensive, resource-demanding breeds.
Ultimately, sustainable practices concerning cattle and biodiversity require acknowledging the long-term consequences of past introductions and embracing a holistic approach to land management. Ongoing research, including ancient DNA analysis, continues to refine our understanding of cattle origins and dispersal patterns [1], providing crucial data for informing future conservation and agricultural practices that mitigate negative impacts on biodiversity while supporting the continued role of cattle in human systems. This focus on genetic diversity and adaptive breeding ties directly back to the initial shifts in land use practices documented in source [1], suggesting a cyclical relationship between ecological impact and potential mitigation strategies.
Water Usage & Quality Considerations
There is no information within the provided source list regarding “Water Usage & Quality Considerations” and therefore no content can be generated for this subtopic using only the provided sources. The documents focus on cattle domestication, genetic history, archaeological methods, and paleo-environmental conditions related to human migration – none of which directly address water usage or quality impacts. Attempting to create a subsection would violate the prompt’s core instruction to only use the provided sources.
Conclusion
Modern cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) are the direct descendants of the aurochs (Bos primigenius), a lineage demonstrably traced through mitochondrial and Y chromosome markers. Initial domestication events – in Southwest and South Asia roughly 10,500 and 8,000 years ago, respectively – established the foundational genetic divergence observed today. Subsequent dispersal patterns, greatly accelerated by post-Columbian transatlantic exchange, reveal a surprisingly complex introduction of cattle to the Americas. Archaeological and aDNA analysis demonstrate that founding populations were not monolithic, originating from diverse locations including the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, and potentially direct African introductions, challenging previous assumptions of a singular Iberian source.
The genetic history of cattle, as reconstructed through ancient and modern DNA, is intricately linked to patterns of human migration and socio-economic change. The establishment of cattle ranching during the colonial period profoundly reshaped landscapes, driving both ecological impacts and the artificial selection of traits suited to new environments. This process resulted in the development of “Creole” or heritage breeds exhibiting a complex mix of European and African ancestry, highlighting the adaptability of cattle and the lasting consequences of human intervention. The prevalence of specific haplogroups – notably T and I lineages – in different regions further underscores the interplay between genetic background, geographic distribution, and environmental adaptation.
Ultimately, the study of cattle provides a unique window into understanding both the history of animal domestication and the interconnectedness of Afro-Eurasian populations. While limited data exists regarding cognitive abilities or specific details of nutritional adaptation within the provided sources, the genetic evidence clearly demonstrates that cattle are a resilient and adaptable species capable of thriving in diverse environments. Their dispersal and diversification are not simply a story of biological adaptation, but also one of cultural exchange, economic necessity, and lasting environmental consequences. The ongoing analysis of ancient DNA continues to refine our understanding of cattle origins and dispersal patterns, offering valuable insights into the complex history of this globally significant animal.
Bibliography
[1] Archived: The genetic prehistory of domesticated cattle from their origin to the spread across Europe – PMC. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4445560/
are properly credited. PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC3722109 PMID: 23894505 Abstract The Columbian Exchange resulted in a widespread movement of humans, plants and animals between the Old and New Worlds. The late 15 th to early 16 th century transfer of cattle from the Iberian Peninsula and Canary Islands to the Caribbean laid the foundation for the development of American creole cattle ( Bos taurus ) breeds. Genetic analyses of modern cattle from the Americas reveal a mixed ancestry of European, African and Indian origins. Recent debate in the genetic literature centers on the ‘African’ haplogroup T1 and its subhaplogroups, alternatively tying their origins to the initial Spanish herds, and/or from subsequent movements of taurine cattle through the African slave trade. We examine this problem through ancient DNA analysis of early 16 th century cattle bone from Sevilla la Nueva, the first Spanish colony in Jamaica. In spite of poor DNA preservation, both T3 and T1 haplogroups were identified in the cattle remains, confirming the presence of T1 in the earliest Spanish herds. The absence, however, of “African-derived American” haplotypes (AA/T1c1a1) in the Sevilla la Nueva sample, leaves open the origins of this sub-haplogroup in contemporary Caribbean cattle. Introduction Initiated in 1492 by the voyage of Christopher Columbus, the Columbian Exchange involved a drama…
